In ... a concept (thesis) always gives rise to its opposite (antithesis), and the interaction between these two leads to the creation of a new concept (synthesis).
... in ancient and especially in medieval philosophy and theology, the divine reason that acts as the ordering principle of the universe.
... considered the soul a higher form of existence than the body and taught that knowledge consists in the contemplation of Platonic ideas as abstract notions apart from sensory experience and anything physical or material.
Which philosophy is characterized by: “knowledge is not innate, but comes only from experience and observation guided by reason”?
Who said that “knowledge results from the organization of perceptual data on the basis of inborn cognitive structures, which he calls "categories"”?
Independence is the true good, not riches or luxuries. It follows that they were exceedingly ascetic, regarding abstemiousness as the means to human liberation.
To ... the very fact that the ego, the “I,” apprehends its free activity, which inevitably brings it into an encounter with the “not-I,” the non-ego.
... philosophers explored idealism and ethical voluntarism, a philosophical tradition that places a strong emphasis on human will.
Choose the antithesis to the following thesis “There is not only natural reason for everything but also freedom.”
... thought that air becomes warmer and turns to fire when it is rarefied and that it becomes colder and turns solid when it is condensed.
The goal of the philosopher, ... said, is to know the eternal Forms and to instruct others in that knowledge.
According to ..., intellectual pleasures are preferred to sensual ones, which tend to disturb peace of mind.
... believed that technical innovations bring about new ways of meeting human needs and make it increasingly possible for people to satisfy their deepest wants and to develop and perfect their individual capacities.
... believed that fire is the primordial source of matter and that the entire world is in a constant state of change.
According to ..., knowledge is basically still a passive instrument developed by organisms in order to help them in their quest for survival.
... overman is a creator of values, a creator of a “master morality” that reflects the strength and independence of one who is liberated from all values.
... claimed to have proved that the long history of oppression would soon end when the masses rise up and usher in a revolution that will create a classless utopian society.
... the study which explains the contradiction of the idea of God as Absolute and the existence of the world evil.
Perception of the world where reality and illusion, natural and supernatural, objective and subjective are based, is one of the essential features of the mythological outlook. What does it mean?
... introduced a new social emphasis, holding virtue to consist in a subordination of the individual to the laws of a universal, reasonable harmony.
... maintained that all prejudices and preconceived attitudes, which he called idols, must be abandoned.
Although ... explicitly denied that any overmen had yet arisen, he mentions several individuals who could serve as models.
Individuals, ... believed, create their own natures through their choices, which must be made in the absence of universal, objective standards.
According to ..., an individual's duties consist of veneration of God and love and righteousness toward others.
The goal of the philosopher, according to ..., is to know the perfect forms and to instruct others in that knowledge.
According to ..., all these intermediate powers are known as the Logos, the divine image in which persons are created and through which they participate in the deity.
... argued that people cannot understand the nature of the things in the universe, but they can be rationally certain of what they experience themselves.
Reawakened by knowledge, the divine element in humanity can return to its proper home in the transcendent spiritual realm.
... notes that knowledge can be transmitted from one subject to another, and thereby loses its dependence on any single individual.
These beings ... found in the spiritual world of ideas—not merely ideas in the Platonic sense, but real, active powers, surrounding God as a number of attendant beings.
The ultimate ideal of the movement was to integrate into an ordered system both the natural wisdom of Greece and Rome and the religious wisdom of Christianity.
According to ... knowledge results from a kind of mapping or reflection of external objects, through our sensory organs.
Throughout the ... period, philosophy was called the servant of theology, not only because the truth of philosophy was subordinated to that of theology, but also because the theologian used philosophy to understand and explain revelation.
... states that the original principle of all things is water, from which everything proceeds and into which everything is again resolved.
Narrow empirism, which drags all the facts which occur on its way to the ant nest, but it is disable to generalize and conclude.
His avowed purpose was “to fulfill the philosopher's mission of searching into myself and other men.”
... seeks to describe or posit the basic categories and relationships of being or existence to define entities and types of entities within its framework.
According to ..., the subject of knowledge has lost his primacy, and knowledge becomes a force of its own with proper goals and ways of developing itself.
According to ..., knowledge contributes most to the survival and reproduction of the subject(s) within their given environment.
Thales, Anaximander, Anaximenes, Heraclitus, Pythagoras, Parmenides, Zeno of Elea are the representatives of ...
According to ..., knowledge is seen as largely independent of a hypothetical 'external reality' or environment.
The form of pairs of contradictory propositions (thesis and antithesis) in which both members of each pair can be proved true - ....
In his critiques of science, morality, and art, ... attempted to derive universal rules to which, he claimed, every rational person should subscribe.
According to..., knowledge consists of models that attempt to represent the environment in such a way as to maximally simplify problem-solving.
...was directed not so much at the achievement of abstract truth about essence of life, but on search of the truth and wisdom, at the search of the answer to a question «How to live?»
... stated that the creation of worlds as the natural consequence of the ceaseless whirling motion of atoms in space.
... also provided a new account of the relationship between faith and reason that the truths of faith and the truths of reason cannot conflict but rather apply to different realms.
Who said that “psychology should restrict itself to examining the relation between observable stimuli and observable behavioural responses”?
According to Kierkegaard, the ... individual constantly seeks variety and novelty in an effort to stave off boredom but eventually must confront boredom and despair.
... conceived of God as a being without attributes, better than virtue and knowledge, better than the beautiful and the good, a being so exalted above the world that an intermediate class of beings is required to establish a point of contact between him and the world.
... argued that religious faith and philosophical understanding are complementary rather than opposed and that one must “believe in order to understand and understand in order to believe.”
... described two spheres, or stages of existence, that the individual may choose: the aesthetic and the ethical.
...concerned with such issues as the nature of the ultimate reality, philosophy of religion, philosophy of mind, personal identity, freedom of will and immortality
According to ..., the will inevitably leads a person to pain, suffering, and death and into an endless cycle of birth, death, and rebirth.
... added to the “being” of his predecessors the concept of “becoming,” or flux, which he took to be a basic reality underlying all things, even the most apparently stable.
According to Kierkegaard, the ... way of life is a refined hedonism, consisting of a search for pleasure and a cultivation of mood.
... popularized the ideas of various early philosophers; most of them concluded that truth and morality were essentially matters of opinion.
According to ..., the four cardinal virtues of philosophy are wisdom, courage, justice, and temperance
... claimed that philosophy must be developed systematically from a single self-evident proposition, and it must make clear the ground of all experience.
...deals with the means of production of knowledge, as well as skepticism about different knowledge claims.
The reflection of separate properties of the objects of the real world with the help of our sense organs - ...
... are also called bodies, or physical particulars, or concrete things, or matter, or maybe substances
...a doctrine that affirms that all knowledge is based on experience, and denies the possibility of spontaneous ideas or a priori thought.
... claimed that the heavens, therefore, must be made of a fifth, and different element, which he called Ether.
According to ..., humans are immortal by reason of their heavenly nature, but just as degrees in this divine nature exist, degrees of immortality also exist. Mere living after death, common to all humanity, differs from the future existence of the perfect souls, for whom paradise is oneness with God.
... contended that civilization, with its attendant ills, was an artificial, unnatural condition and that it should be held in contempt.
The Greek word ... being translated as “word” in the English Bible: “In the beginning was the Word, and the Word was with God, and the Word was God. . . . And the Word became flesh and dwelt among us . . .”
... cultivated the concept of number, which became for him the ultimate principle of all proportion, order, and harmony in the universe.
During ..., the religious teachings of the Gospels were combined by the Fathers of the Church with many of the philosophical concepts of the Greek and Roman schools.
... names applied to teachers who provided instruction in several higher branches of learning for a fee.
According to ..., Thought and extension are considered to depend on and exist in an ultimate reality, God.
... believed in the superiority of argument over writing and therefore spent the greater part this mature life in the marketplace and public places of Athens, engaging in dialogue and argument with anyone who would listen or who would submit to interrogation.
... is “present everywhere” and seems to be understood as both a divine mind and at least a semiphysical force, acting through space and time. Through the faculty of reason, all human beings (but not any other animals) share in the divine reason.
... maintained that all human behavior is motivated by the will to power. In its positive sense, the will to power is not simply power over others, but the power over oneself that is necessary for creativity.
Each of these three worlds (according to ...) consists of two "natures", that’s why it has the double nature: one — visible (material), second — invisible (divine).
... believed that without the religious virtues of faith, hope, and charity, which require divine grace to be attained, a person cannot develop the natural virtues of courage, justice, temperance, and wisdom.
... developed what he called a positive philosophy, in which he defined human existence as the mode of self-consciousness on the part of the Absolute.
Before ..., explanations of the universe were mythological, and his concentration on the basic physical substance of the world marks the birth of scientific thought.
According to ..., the world is complete chaos and all the phenomena in the world are accidental and chaotic.
... saw God as the cause of the great mechanism of the world, a view more in harmony with science than with traditional religion.
His view of human life was pessimistic, asserting that happiness is impossible in the world of the living, where even with good fortune, which is rare, awareness of approaching death would mar any tendency toward satisfaction.
... focuses on analyzing the nature of knowledge and how it relates to similar notions such as truth, belief, and justification.
In ... there is an implicit assumption that models are built from parts of other models and empirical data on the basis of trial-and-error complemented with some heuristics or intuition.
... claimed good lies not in external objects, but in the state of the soul itself, in the wisdom and restraint by which a person is delivered from the passions and desires that perturb the ordinary life.
... stated that the origin of the universe as the result of the separation of opposites from the primordial material.
... declared that all statements concerning reality are false and that, even if true, their truth can never be proved.
Which philosophy is characterized by: “In this view of the universe, known as Mechanism, science took priority over spirituality, and the surrounding physical world that we experience and observe received as much, if not more, attention than the world to come”?
... claimed that each monad represents an individual microcosm, mirroring the universe in varying degrees of perfection and developing independently of all other monads.
... regarded the objects of the material world as fundamentally unknowable; from the point of view of reason, they serve merely as the raw material from which sensations are formed.
... philosophers turned to the subject of knowledge—known variously as the ego, the I, the mind, and human consciousness.
Any ... must give an account of which words refer to entities, which do not, why, and what categories result.
Who said: «When spirit of the man is cheerful, ideas are quiet, heart is peaceful — everything will be light, happy, blessed. It is philosophy»?
According to Kierkegaard, the ... way of life involves an intense, passionate commitment to duty, to unconditional social and religious obligations.
... born in what is now Souk-Ahras, Algeria, in ad 354, brought a systematic method of philosophy to Christian theology.
Hence, ... advocated returning to a natural life, which they equated with a simple life, maintaining that complete happiness can be attained only through self-sufficiency.
According to ..., sparks or seeds of the Divine Being fell from this transcendent realm into the material universe, which is wholly evil, and were imprisoned in human bodies.
What is a function of philosophy that is directed at comprehension of integrity of the world, at cognition of the background and preconditions of interconnection between man and the world, at systemic-theoretical, logical-consequent and argumentative solution of the outlook problems?
... have no existence, and space and time exist only as part of the mind, as “intuitions” by which perceptions are measured and judged.
According to ..., the activity of the will can only be brought to an end through an attitude of resignation, in which the reason governs the will to the extent that striving ceases.
To explain how solid objects are formed from air, ... introduced the notions of condensation and rarefaction.
God, according to ... philosophy, created two classes of substance that make up the whole of reality.
Which philosophical conception rejects everything old, completely destroying it and changes it into something new?
... proposed a finite, spherical universe, with the earth at its center. The central region is made up of four elements: earth, air, fire, and water.
...' friends planned his escape from prison, but he preferred to comply with the law and die for his cause. His last day was spent with his friends and admirers, and in the evening he calmly fulfilled his sentence by drinking a cup of hemlock according to a customary procedure of execution.
... claimed that in order to avoid ultimate despair, the individual must make a similar “leap of faith” into a religious life, which is inherently paradoxical, mysterious, and full of risk.
For ... the tragedy of life arises from the nature of the will, which constantly urges the individual toward the satisfaction of successive goals, none of which can provide permanent satisfaction for the infinite activity of the life force, or will.
He stated the basic links are syllogisms: pairs of propositions that, taken together, give a new conclusion.
Who said: “In our search for the direct road to truth, we should busy ourselves with no object about which we cannot attain truth equal to that of the demonstration of arithmetic and geometry.”?
True happiness, ... taught, is the serenity resulting from the conquest of fear of the gods, of death, and of the afterlife.
According to ..., all the phenomena in the world are planned in advance and the possibility of chance is rejected.
Philosophic and theological movement that attempted to use natural human reason, in particular, the philosophy and science of Aristotle, to understand the supernatural content of Christian revelation.
... came to a pessimistic view about original sin, grace, and predestination: the ultimate fates of humans
.... emphasized the belief that people are the servants and interpreters of nature, that truth is not derived from authority, and that knowledge is the fruit of experience.
... combined Aristotelian science and Augustinian theology into a comprehensive system of thought that later became the authoritative philosophy of the Roman Catholic Church.
... claimed that all things are composed of minute, invisible, particles of pure matter (atoma), which move about eternally in infinite empty space (kenon).
According to ..., the universe is composed of countless conscious centers of spiritual force or energy, known as monads.
For ..., the history of society is the history of class struggle in which the ruling class uses religion and traditions, as well as economic power to reinforce its domination over the working class.
... advanced a theory known as parallelism, according to which every idea has a physical counterpart and, similarly, every physical object has an ideational counterpart.
... epistemology does accept the subjectivity of basic concepts, like space and time, and the impossibility to reach purely objective representations of things-in-themselves.
What can I know?, What do I have to do?, What do I have to hope for? are the questions of nature understanding introduced by...?
Who proposed that memory limitations can be overcome by recoding information into chunks, mental representations that require mental procedures for encoding and decoding the information?
Chief among ... ideas was the theory of forms, which proposed that objects in the physical world merely resemble perfect forms in the ideal world, and that only these perfect forms can be the object of true knowledge.
According to ..., knowledge is constructed by the subject or group of subjects in order to adapt to their environment in the broad sense.
... affirmed the value of vitality, strength, and the supremacy of an existence that is purely egoistic.
... argued that individuals are driven together not by feelings of sentimental love but by the irrational impulses of the will.
... stated: “The philosophers have only interpreted the world in different ways ; the point is to change it”
Which philosophy is characterized by: “The medieval view of the world as created and governed by God was supplanted by the mechanistic picture of the world as a vast machine, the parts of which move in accordance with strict physical laws, without purpose
... claimed that consciousness is this dynamic encounter between the “I” and the “not-I,” in which the self and the world are interactively defined and realized.
Born in Athens, the son of Sophroniscus, a sculptor, and Phaenarete, a midwife, he received the regular elementary education in literature, music, and gymnastics.
... was identified with the will of God, or with the Ideas (or Platonic Forms) that are in the mind of God.
... applied the term existential to his philosophy because he regarded philosophy as the expression of an intensely examined individual life.
According to ..., the masses conform to tradition, whereas his ideal overman is secure, independent, and highly individualistic.
... puts much emphasis on the changing and relative character of knowledge, but it is still absolute in the primacy it gives to either social consensus or internal coherence.
Which philosophy is characterized by: “The aim of human life was no longer conceived as preparation for salvation in the next world, but rather as the satisfaction of people’s natural desires. Political institutions and ethical principles ceased to be regarded as reflections of divine command and came to be seen as practical devices created by humans.”?
In ... own teaching, they tended to emphasize forms of persuasive expression, such as the art of rhetoric, which provided pupils with skills useful for achieving success in life, particularly public life.
Who argues that the nervous system of an organism cannot in any absolute way distinguish between a perception and a hallucination?
... conceived the universe as a number of concentric cylinders, of which the outermost is the sun, the middle is the moon, and the innermost is the stars.
The measurement of something by stating how much there is of it, an amount or number of something - ...
Who said: "He who possesses the highest knowledge with respect to one or another genus must be able to express the most certain principles of the relevant subject, so that he, who treats about Beings in so far as they are Beings, should be able to express the most certain principles of all things. This is the philosopher"?
According to ..., 'truth' or 'reality' will be accorded only to those constructions on which most people of a social group agree.
... claimed that new values could be created to replace the traditional ones, and his discussion of the possibility led to his concept of the overman or superman.
...made many important investigations into the philosophy of religion, including an extremely influential study of the attributes of God, such as omnipotence, omniscience, eternity.
The philosophy changes the sphere of its interests – from the cosmogonic problems to the study of the man and the problems of his existence during ...
According to Kierkegaard, he proposed a third stage, the ..., in which one submits to the will of God but in doing so finds authentic freedom.
... held that the phenomena of nature are only apparent and due to human error; they seem to exist, but have no real existence.
... is the self-consciousness of a tribe, where development of the individual self- consciousness is not observed. What is this?
The peculiar possession of the individual. These illusions depend on his natural characteristics, background, education, his values.
For ..., the history was a matter of development not of Absolute Spirit but of conditions governing human economic existence.
